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Interesting facts about plastics and rubber

We come across plastics and rubber everywhere in our daily lives. Discover fascinating stories, surprising facts and interesting background information – from historical developments and well-known products to key figures and innovations in the industry.

Results (423)

  • Best Practice Guide for the Safe Handling and Use of polymer-based Nanoparticles

    Schematic illustration of a polymer-based nanoparticle loading with drugs in the interior (purple) and specific color markings on the surface (blue dots). Source: JCSM / SmartDyeLivery GmbH A novel Best Practice Guide for the Safe Handling and Use of Nanoparticles in Packaging Industries is now available to support those working with nanomaterials at all stages in the development of packaging products. The Best Practice Guide is the final output of NanoSafePack, a 36 month project funded under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7). The development of the guide was informed by novel research activities undertaken as part of this project, as well as wider state-of-the-art knowledge in the field of nanosafety. Primarily intended for use by SMEs and larger companies involved in the manufacture of polymer-based nanocomposites for packaging applications, the Best Practice Guide provides practical advice and recommendations which are easy to understand, use and apply in an industrial setting. This includes technical information concerning the specific applications and properties of nanofillers and polymer-based nanocomposites, as well as new scientific knowledge and guidance on environmental, health, and safety issues. To accompany the full version of Best Practice Guide, a shorter Mini-Guide (free Download) has also been developed, which is freely available in five languages: English, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian. The Mini-Guide provides an overview of the main benefits of nanotechnology in the packaging industry, the structure and contents of the full version of the Best Practice Guide and recommendations for the safe handling and use of nanofillers and polymer-based nanocomposites, demonstrated using a number of case studies. Source: NanoSafePack

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  • Analysis of microplastic

    Topic of the Month: February 2015 - Relevant details for laboratory work on the application System for the pyrolysis analysis of microplastic. Image: GERSTEL The scientists used a GC 7890 (Agilent Technologies) equipped with a cooled injection system (CIS) for their analytical method. A thermal desorption system (TDS) was fitted on this, equipped with a precisely co-ordinated TDS module for pyrolysis (PM1). This combination is suitable for manual procedure in the thermal desorption of volatile compounds, including pyrolysis of one and the same sample. If, on the other hand, the intention is to process larger numbers of samples, automation of the process is advisable and is possible using an autosampler in connection with the thermal desorption unit (TDU) and a special pyrolysis module. Fries et al. adopted the following procedure in their tests: one microparticle was in each case put in a pyrolysis test tube and was heated up in the TDS, initially from 40°C to 350°C (10 min.) at 10°C/min.; the volatile compounds escaped from the matrix during this process. Cryofocussing of the analytes was carried out in the CIS at –50°C; they were then transferred to the GC column in the context of a temperature programme [-50°C – 12°C/min. – 280°C (3 min.)]. The GC column was a 30 m HP-5MS with a 250 µ ID and a film thickness of 0.25 µ. The GC furnace was heated up via a temperature programme [40°C – 15°C/min. – 180°C – 5°C – 300°C (12 min.)]. The carrier gas was helium. After the chromatogram of the volatile and non-volatile compounds had been produced, pyrolysis of one and the same sample was carried out. The TDS was heated up from 60°C (1 min.) to 350°C at 180°C/min. in preparation for this. Pyrolysis was then carried out in the PM1 module at 700°C (1 min.). The resulting fragments were transferred to the CIS (which had been cooled with liquid nitrogen) with the flow of carrier gas, were cryofocussed and were then transferred to the GC after heating. A MS 5975C from Agilent Technologies was used for mass selective detection: the chromatogram of the volatile compounds was recorded in the first stage and this was followed immediately afterwards – in the second stage – by the pyrogram of the pyrolysis products. Back to the main article

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  • Focus on microplastics

    Topic of the Month: February 2015 Effective examination of minute polymer residue in marine samples In order to obtain an insight into the nature and scope of environmental pollution by plastic debris, the scientific community is supposed to help to determine the facts. Pyrolysis GC/MC could be a useful way to characterise critical microplastic particles. Scientists from Osnabrück and Darmstadt Universities are at any rate demonstrating how the chemical composition of microplastic particles can be investigated using this tool in the context of the EU-wide introduction of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD). During the International Coastal Cleanup 2013 [1], 648,015 volunteers collected more than 5,500 tonnes of debris from about 20,783 kilometres of ocean coastline. The top ten of the debris most frequently found: cigarette butts (913 tonnes), sweet wrappers (794 tonnes), plastic bottles (426 tonnes), plastic lids (385 tonnes), (plastic) drinking straws (252 tonnes), standard supermarket plastic bags (200 tonnes), glass bottles (179 tonnes), other plastic bags and sacks (176 tonnes), paper bags (167 tonnes) and beverage cans (154 tonnes). Although no objective conclusions about how much litter reaches the sea year in, year out can be drawn from the figures, it can be presumed that the total is much worse, since the proverbial tip of the iceberg is basically all that was discovered. What can definitely be assumed, on the other hand, is that plastic residue is one of the main environmental pollutants. It is not just environmental organisations that are convinced of this. The plastics industry and the political community think that action needs to be taken too. Steps are in the meantime being taken at different national and international levels, ranging from demands for responsible and sustainable use of polymer raw materials and products to the development of effective waste disposal and recycling concepts. Measures and projects have been initiated with which the global problem of marine debris is being tackled [2-4, 14, 15]; the focus is now on inland waterways like rivers and lakes, which also appear to be affected severely [5-8]. Wasserfloh mit Plastikpartikeln im Verdauungstrakt, deutlich sichtbar (rot) in der Fluoreszenzaufnahme. Foto: Chr. Laforsch The problem with the smallest particles Polymers are extremely tough structures. Although they are susceptible to high-energy sunlight as well as to chemical and mechanical influences, they never – depending on their chemical structure (i.e. there are only a few exceptions) – disintegrate completely and disappear entirely. In the course of time, a plastic breaks down into increasingly small and fine particles. By the way: microplastic includes not just artefacts but also plastic granulates that are used in the manufacturing of plastic products or in cosmetics and personal products. In view of their size (just a few micrometres to millimetres) and the fact that they often have irregular shapes and colours, organisms that live in the water and sea birds confuse microplastic particles with food and eat them. Varying numbers of plastic fragments are frequently found in dead sea birds. It remains dubious whether microplastic caused the death of the birds; this is difficult to prove experimentally. It is reasonable to assume that the birds suffered from malnutrition when their stomachs are full of plastic. Microplastic particles may also contain additives that are harmful to health as well as pesticides, heavy metals or other toxins from the environment. This means that microplastic can also be a danger to us human beings – who are at the end of the food chain – when contaminated seafood lands on our plates. In the course of their studies [10], Elke Fries et al. examined marine microplastic particles that they extracted from sand samples taken at some places on the beach at the northern end of the East Frisian island of Norderney, using all the laboratory facilities they had at their disposal. International efforts to obtain more information The Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) [12] issued by the European Commission, which focusses on effective protection of the marine environment, specifies that the nature and composition of microparticles, particularly microplastic particles, must be characterised in the marine environment. Scientists from Osnabrück and Darmstadt Universities decided to do this: in the course of their studies [10], Elke Fries et al. examined marine microplastic particles that they extracted from sand samples taken at some places on a section of the beach at the northern end of the East Frisian island of Norderney, using all the laboratory facilities they had at their disposal. In order to determine the type of plastic and the organic additives they contained, they made successful use in the above context of pyrolysis with subsequent gas chromatography and mass spectrometric detection (GC/MS) – claiming to be the first scientists ever to have done this [10] (see also [11, 12]). Fries et al. write that the purpose of spectroscopic processes in particular is to determine the structure and composition of plastics as well as to identify them. It is reported that supercritical liquid extraction or Soxhlet extraction is frequently chosen to determine organic additives in plastic matrices, while thermoanalytical techniques are apparently required if the additives contained in the polymers are to be analysed that only dissolve or can only be extracted / hydrolysed poorly or to a limited extent. Programm of a microplastic sample collected of the island Norderney. Image: E. Fries A look at the technical and application details Pyrolysis GC/MS can always prove to be the instrument of choice when the aim it to obtain structural information about macromolecules efficiently, via determination of the resulting thermal decomposition products and/or pyrolysis fragments [13]. In serial pyrolysis GC/MS, the volatile compounds of the sample are first of all extracted thermally at low temperatures and then the same sample is pyrolysed by increasing the temperature – ideally without any modification of the system. By way of summary, Fries et al. report that it is possible in this way to extract organic additives and pyrolysis products in a single analytical procedure, while at the same time obtaining information about the material structure, i.e. the type of plastic, and the additives it contains. With the help of existing mass spectrum databases and a comparison of retention times and mass spectrums of previously tested standard substances, Fries et al. succeeded in identifying various plastic additives in the microplastic particles found on Norderney. They included plasticisers (phthalates; DEHP, DBP, DEP, DIBP and DMP), antioxidants like 2,4-di-tert-butylphenol and such aromatic compounds as benzaldehyde, which is added – for example – to cosmetics and polymers as a fragrance. The type of plastic from which the unknown microplastic particles were made was determined by the scientists by comparing the pyrograms they recorded with those obtained during the pyrolysis of standard polymers. They identified polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (P) and polyamide (PA) as well as chlorinated and clorosulfonated PE. Background information Analysis of microplastic System for the fully automated pyrolysis GC/MS analysis of microplastic. Image: GERSTEL Efficient obtainment of valuable information Fries et al. give the following assessment of their method for the detection of organic plastic additives in marine plastic particles and of the identification of the type of polymer involved: compared with traditional solvent extraction, serial pyrolysis GC/MS has the ability to analyse the type of polymer and organic additives the particles contain in a single process operation, without the use of solvents and with no background contamination. In just one process operation using the same sample, the chromatogram of the volatile compounds is obtained first of all, followed by an interference-free pyrogram of the pyrolysis fragments, because any potentially disruptive compounds have already been removed by the preceding thermal desorption stage. Serial pyrolysis GC/MS has the degree of sensitivity required to determine plasticisers, antioxidants and aromatic substances in microplastic particles with a mass of less than 350 µ. A possible chemical, toxic or hormonal risk that some plastic additives represent can be tested and detected with this process. It was possible to use serial pyrolysis GC/MS in the context of the introduction of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) to investigate the chemical composition of microplastic particles. And last but not least – to present a complete picture: Fries et al. determined the following inorganic plastic additives: titanium oxide as well as barium, sulphate and zinc compounds. Fries et al. used scanning electron microscopy (SEM) for this purpose [9]. References [1] www.oceanconservancy.org/our-work/marine-debris/icc-data-2014.pdf Seite 16 [2] Marine litter solutions [3] Marine Debris Solutions [4] Fishing for litter [5] H. K. Imhof, N. P. Ivleva, J. Schmid, R. Niessner, C. Laforsch, Contamination of beach sediments of a subalpine lake with microplastic particles, Current Biology 23 (2013) 867-868 [6] Plastikmüll in bayerischen Flüssen und Seen? Pressemeldung der Universität Bayreuth ( www.uni-bayreuth.de/presse/Aktuelle-Infos/2014/058-Mikroplastik-Forschungsprojekt.pdf [7] Mikroplastik in süddeutschen Flüssen und Seen. Pressemeldung der Universität Bayreuth ( www.uni-bayreuth.de/presse/Aktuelle-Infos/2014/164-Mikroplastik.pdf ) [8] A. Lechner, H. Keckeis, F. Lumesberger-Loisl, B. Zens, R. Krusch, M. Glas, M. Tritthart, E. Schludermann, The Danube so colourful: a potpourri of plastic litter outnumbers fish larvae in Europe’s second largest river, Environmental Pollution, http://authors.elsevier.com/sd/article/S0269749114000475, DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2014.02.006 [9] Elke Fries et al., Identification of polymer types and additives in marine microplasti particles using pyrolysis-GC/MS and scanning electron microscopy, Environmenta Science: Processes Impacts 15 (2013) 1949-1956 [10] Jana Willmeyer, Analysis of marine plastic debris using thermodesorptionpyrolysis-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (TD-Pyr-GC/MS), Bachelor-Arbeit, Institut für Umweltsystemforschung, Universität Osnabrück, September 2012 [11] Jens Henning Dekiff. Occurrence and spatial distribution of microplastics and organic additives in sediments from the Island Norderney, Master-Arbeit, Institut für Umweltsystemforschung, Universität Osnabrück, November 2012 [12] Marine Strategy Framework Directive ( http://ec.europa.eu/environment/marine/eu-coast-and-marine-policy/marine-strategy-framework-directive/index_en.htm ) [13] E. Kleine-Benne, B. Rose, Versatile automated pyrolysis GC combining a filament type pyrolyzer with a thermal desorption unit, GERSTEL Application Note 11/2011 ( www.gerstel.de/pdf/p-gc-an-2011-04.pdf ) [14] The Ocean Cleanup [15] E. R. Zettler, T. J. Mincer, L. Amaral-Zettler, Life in the „Plastisphere“: Microbial Communities on Plastic Marine Debris. Environmental Science Technology 47 (2013) 7137-7146 [16] Wagner, M, Scherer, C., Alvarez-Muñoz, D., Brennholt, N., Bourrain, X., Buchinger, S., Fries, E. Grosbois, C., Klasmeier, J., Marti, T., Rodriguez-Mozaz, S., Urbatzka, R., Vethaak, A.D., Winther-Nielsen, M., Reifferscheid, G. (2014). Microplastics in freshwater ecosystems: what we know and what we need to know. Environmental Sciences Europe, 26,12( www.enveurope.com/content/26/1/12 ) Guido Deußing

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  • Polymer materials make solar thermal systems more sustainable

    Within the ExKoll project, the Durability Analysis Group at Fraunhofer ISE investigated the economic feasibility of polymer collectors and performed life-cycle analyses. The experts found that in comparison to standard flat collectors, mass-produced polymer collectors perform better economically and ecologically. For the environmentally friendly production of collectors, the scientists considered both high-performance plastics and simple, standard plastics and assessed their suitability in solar thermal systems. Comprehensive investigations on how to increase durability and reliability as well as economic feasibility studies formed the basis of the life cycle analyses. The energy and raw material flows of the promising collector concepts were compared with those of a conventional flat plate collector with an aluminum-copper absorber. “The results of the comparison clearly show that the polymer collectors have a lower environmental impact than comparable standard flat plate collectors,” stated Michael Köhl, project leader at Fraunhofer ISE. “We determined differences of up to 65 percent.” Also when considering the categories which have the largest effects on the environmental footprint, that is human toxicity, fine particle pollution, fossil fuels, climate change, exploration and extraction of metals, we found that the impact of the conventional flat collectors is greater in all five categories. Plastic collectors not only show a large environmental potential. An economic feasibility study revealed that alone in the production, plastic collectors can achieve cost savings of up to 50 percent compared to standard collectors. This result is particularly interesting for companies that already manufacture plastics and who want to widen their range to include collectors. Future research is to focus on optimizing the supply and distribution chain of polymer collectors. The goal of the research is to decrease costs further and to promote plastics as an alternative material in solar thermal technology. A new Task of the Solar Heating and Cooling Program of the International Energy Agency (IEA SHCP), whose topic is cost reduction, offers an ideal platform for pursuing this goal. The Task is led by Fraunhofer ISE and shall start its work in summer 2015 to develop further strategies for reducing the costs of solar thermal applications.

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  • Scented polymers

    Topic of the Month: January 2015 What fragrant plastics tell us Odours have a direct impact on our perception and our decision-making processes: it is a well-known fact that anything which smells good gets a good response. However, it is not always the case that something which smells good is good for us too, while something that stinks is not always bad for us. In actual fact, this article outlines a specific example of where the opposite is the case. We don’t have a nose merely for visual effect. And it would be just as inaccurate, on the other hand, to describe the nose as an olfactory organ alone – in view partly of the extremely complicated smelling process (which has not been explained completely yet at the scientific level) and partly of the psychological element associated with our nose that is reflected in many idioms we use. The nose and its significance We cut off our nose to spite our face when we harm ourselves by acting spitefully or resentfully. When we annoy people, we get up their nose, while we keep our nose clean by behaving properly and keeping out of trouble. We put a person’s nose out of joint when we make someone jealous and thumb our nose at them when we act with blatant disregard for their feelings. We turn our nose up at someone when we are showing disdain or scorn. We are sticking our nose into something when we interfere or intrude where it is not of proper concern to us. And, finally, we are acting haughtily when we have our nose in the air. Irrespective of its metaphorical meaning, our nose renders us great service in everyday life, for example when we are assessing something: what smells goods generally elicits a positive response from us. This is true not only of people but also of all the different things that we eat and wear, that care for or decorate our bodies or that are useful to us in some way or another: as soon as they reach our nose, odours can start a more powerful neuronal firework show in us than any of our other senses and can lead to reactions ranging from disgust to delight and even addictive sniffing. Awareness of the importance of olfactory forces proves to be valuable in many different respects. Manufacturers of consumer goods are virtuosos in using this instrument to stimulate product careers and to avoid the fate of ending as an unwanted shelf warmer: a pleasant fragrance increases the consumer’s perception and acceptance of a product and therefore promotes sales – notwithstanding possible cultural differences in the assessment of what smells good or stinks; there is no accounting for taste, as the saying goes. This fact explains the use of aromas and fragrances in the manufacturing of consumer goods that have the same product name but taste different in Asia than in Central Europe or the United States. The toy industry also gives in to the temptation to stimulate the life of its products by using substances with olfactory appeal – without making any attempt to hide the fact. On the contrary: the advertising for them frequently even stresses that this doll smells of cinnamon while another one has a vanilla scent (more about this later on). Some fragrances have allergenic potential, however, which should not be underestimated – particularly in view of the fact that some of the population (about five per cent in Germany) is sensitive to allergenic fragrances. And: something that is an approved ingredient of cosmetics is not by any means necessarily approved for use in a children’s toy. Bestseller or shelf warmer – the “nose factor” is crucial Regulation of allergenic fragrances in scented toys In their article in the Journal “Analytical Methods” [1], Dr Ines Masuck, Dr Christoph Hutzler and Professor Dr Dr Andreas Luch from the German Risk Assessment Institute (BfR) in Berlin point out that allergenic fragrances are one of the main causes of contact dermatitis in children. The BfR scientists report that the revised European Directive on the safety of toys 2009/48/EC [2] therefore bans 55 fragrances, although it permits up to 100 µg of the fragrance per gram of material when this is technically unavoidable under good manufacturing practice. The aromatic compounds that are banned or are only permitted in limited concentrations include, for example, d-limonene, linalool, benzyl alcohol, citronellol, methyl heptine carbonate, geraniol, citral, hydroxy-citronellal, cinnamal, anisyl alcohol, cinnamyl alcohol, eugenol, isomethyl ionone, isoeugenol, lilial, amyl cinnamal, farnesol, lyral, amylcinnamyl alcohol, hexyl cinnamaldehyde, benzyl benzoate, benzyl salicylate, benzyl cinnamate and coumarin. There should be no expectation that the packaging will indicate whether any of these substances have been used as a additive. It is not possible to conclude, on the other hand, they are not present because they are not permitted. Be very careful has to be the motto. Some manufacturers who have not committed themselves to compliance with a quality standard tend on occasions to try and improve their products by adding banned substances. Quality control is important to monitor potential allergens It is in the interests of individual consumers in particular to check and evaluate the potential risks of toys – not just whether small components can get detached and swallowed or whether there is any danger of poisoning by chemical additives but also whether there is any allergenic potential. Migration and emission studies, that are carried out in the context of emission chamber measurements in the case of fragrance allergies, play a decisive role here. Since fragrances are by their nature volatile or semi-volatile organic compounds (VOC/SVOC), gas chromatography combined with mass spectrometric detection (GC/MS) [LINK] is an additional analytical method of choice to obtain a quick insight into suspicious products, which – in the final analysis – can be subjected to chamber testing in accordance with the regulations if and when they are identified as being allergenic and harmful to health. Masuck et al. ordered five different scented dolls from an Internet shop. Source: Masuck et al. Beware of scented dolls Quality control of children’s toys is essential – there is really no alternative to it – particularly in view of the fact that products from all over the world can be ordered nowadays via the Internet and some of them are manufactured to quality standards that are nowhere near as strict as those applied in Germany. This is confirmed by an experiment carried out by Masuck et al. The BfR scientists ordered five different scented dolls from an Internet shop. Masuck et al. explain that one of the dolls had a sweet vanilla smell, while the others were supposed to smell of popcorn, strawberry and violet – according to the promises made on the packaging. What was at any rate the case was that “the smell of all the dolls investigated differed from the typical plastic smell with its synthetic associations”. In this context, it seems to be reasonable and only sensible to ask the question here: what does plastic smell like? Making sure that quality control is comparable In their analysis, the scientists detected such banned substances as coumarin, cinnamyl alcohol and amyl cinnamic aldehyde. Allergenic fragrances like benzyl benzoate were in addition detected in quantities that would have made declaration on the packaging necessary. d-limonene and linalool were also found, but only when the scientists used a different extraction process, which allows the conclusion to be drawn that quality control results and the analytical procedure used need to be subjected to a critical review and should be compared with acknowledged and guaranteed (i.e. validated) processes. The following rule of thumb can, in a nutshell, be applied by all parents, grandparents, aunts and uncles who want to give young children a treat: hands off scented toys! They need to be treated with caution and should in dubious cases be kept away from children and disposed of – at the latest when playing with the toys leads to headaches, nausea or unaccountable skin reactions. The same is true of bicycle helmets that suddenly start to give off an unpleasant smell. Although there is a very different reason for this ... Photo: Felizitas Gemetz, ©: Fraunhofer IWM Fragrance to increase safety The point of bicycle helmets is to protect the heads of the people wearing them. Only undamaged helmets do what they are supposed to do in an emergency, however. It is therefore advisable to replace such helmets at regular intervals. But who willingly throws out expensive equipment on the off chance that it may be damaged? A new process that scientists from the Fraunhofer Material Mechanics Institute (IWM) in Freiburg have developed in co-operation with the Fraunhofer Institute for Environmental, Safety and Energy Technology (UMSICHT) in Oberhausen is supposed to provide clarity: If small cracks form in polymer materials, they start to smell. Larger cracks virtually stink. What are responsible for the odours are fragrant oils that are enclosed in microcapsules and are integrated in the polymer. Christof Koplin, a scientist who works at IWM, explains that damage to the helmet material, e.g. due to a crash, leads to the formation of cracks in the polymer, so that the microcapsules integrated in the polymer break open and the fragrant oil they contain escapes – with the relevant olfactory impact. This is a good time to dispose of the helmet. Bicycle helmets are available in all shapes and sizes: there are models that can be folded up and ones with a flashing back light or an iPhone display. In future, cyclists will be able to buy helmets that start to smell as soon as they are damaged. A new process makes sure that fragrant oils escape when cracks form in plastics. The damaged helmet releases fragrances. Bottom right: the microcapsule after it has broken open. Additives have to survive the production process undamaged The tiny fragrant oil capsules consist of a silicon core that is impregnated with oil and is enclosed by a layer of melamine formaldehyde resin, which acts as an odour-tight jacket for the capsules and protects them from the mechanical stresses that occur during further processing. These concentrated fragrances are added to a polypropylene material that is given the final shape of the component by the injection moulding process at high pressure (up to 100 bar) and at temperatures of 200 to 300°C. In the case of bicycle helmets, what is involved here is a film that is attached to them. The development of such an olfactory safety indicator is of much greater significance than it might sound. In order to determine what stresses are needed to break open the tiny capsules (which are 1 to 50 micrometres in size), the scientists at the Fraunhofer IWM subject the material to numerous stress tests, to measure pressure, bending and flexing resistance levels. The experts only classify the tests as successful if the capsules open shortly before the product breaks and the fragrances can escape. Koplin explains: “Our odour detection method has several advantages. It not only enables polymer components that are critical for safety reasons to be replaced in good time. The fragrances that escape also make it possible to detect damage that is not visible.” Unsuspected potential for further applications discovered The process developed by the Fraunhofer research scientists is suitable, incidentally, not only for all safety products like bicycle, motorcycle or construction helmets that are difficult to test for defects. The viability of pressure hoses of the kind used, among other things, as washing machine supply lines that are not visible and are difficult to access could, for example, be monitored with them as well. Odour sensors could monitor plastic water and gas supply pipes for critical cracks too, since they detect fragrances that escape from long distances away. The scientists from the Fraunhofer institutes are convinced that it will be possible to find a market for their innovation – and they are justified in thinking this, since odour detection is, after all, already being used with coated metal components, as Koplin points out. A very early stage has only been reached with the plastics and polymer materials that are used in numerous different shapes and forms as well as in many different areas. Talking about practical applications: the 17th “Odour and Emissions of Plastic Materials” workshop is being held by the Institute of Material Technology / Plastic Technology at Kassel University on 16. and 17. March 2015 (venue: Kassel University, Kurt-Wolters-Strasse 3, 34109 Kassel). Further details about the workshop, the programme and the registration arrangements can be found at www.ifw-kassel.de and in the “Apropos K” section of our website www.k-online.de . Sources and publications providing further information [1] I. Masuck, C. Hutzler, A. Luch, Screening of fragrances in scented toys: a comparative study of different headspace techniques coupled to GC-MS, Anal. Methods, 2013, 5, 508 [2] Revised European Directive on the safety of toys 2009/48/EC [http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2009:170:0001:0037:de:PDF] [3] Fraunhofer Institute Umsicht, press release Guido Deußing

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  • Focus on plastic odour and emissions

    The 17th “Odour and Emissions of Plastic Materials” workshop is being held by the Institute of Material Technology / Plastic Technology at Kassel University, Kurt-Wolters-Strasse 3, 34109 Kassel, Germany, on 16. and 17. March 2015. The main features of the two-day “Odour and Emissions of Plastic Materials” workshop that has been held every year since 1999 are lectures by users who are practically involved in technical applications requiring the determination of odour and emissions from plastics and other materials. The presentations are supplemented by an exhibition prepared by companies that have specialised in the testing and investigation of, for example, polymers, additives and material emissions, including well-known manufacturers of analytical equipment. The workshop is designed for all users and manufacturers who produce or process plastics. Particularly close attention is paid to objects that are used in residential and office buildings, in car interiors and in the food industry. In the course of the total of 21 presentations and lectures, a look will, for example, be taken on the first day of the workshop at the “emission behaviour of ABS and PP after thermal oxidative stress” and at the role bacteria play in odour development in cars. The detection of odours has high priority. Reports will be presented about the results of ring tests, relating in one case “to VDA 270” and in another case “to the introduction of odour measurements in the evaluation of building products in accordance with DIN ISO 16000-28”. The workshop participants will also be given an insight into a research project that concentrates on the “sensory evaluation of construction products and interiors”. The day will end, finally, with consideration of the question whether the “Blue Angel” environmental symbol issued to low-emission products is a help to consumers and manufacturers. The second day of the workshop will be starting off with “Concepts for the evaluation of emissions in interiors, with special emphasis on VOC emissions attributable to plastic”, followed by the determination of material emissions in clean rooms. One speaker will be highlighting “sensory odour evaluation methods”, while another will be talking about the impact of recyclates on the emission properties of plastics. Why do natural fibres smell, what influence do additives and process operations have on the olfactory impact of biobased plastics and what do mathematics have to do with smelling – the 17th “Odour and Emissions of Plastic Materials” workshop at Kassel University will also be explaining how instrumental analytics can be combined with human sensory perception. Guido Deussing Please visit www.ifw-kassel.de. If you have any questions, please contact Ms Susanne Wolff, telephone: +49 561 804-3687, e-mail: Susanne.wolff@uni-kassel.de, Institute of Material Technology / Plastic Technology, Kassel University, Mönchebergstrasse 3, 34109 Kassel, Germany. Programm2015.pdf (143.9 KB)

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  • Bioplastics production capacities to grow by more than 400% by 2018

    The results of European Bioplastics’ annual market data update, presented today at the 9th European Bioplastics Conference in Brussels, confirm the positive growth trend of the global bioplastics production capacities. “The market is predicted to grow by more than 400 percent in the mid-term,” stated François de Bie, Chairman of European Bioplastics. The data compiled in cooperation with its respected scientific partners – the IfBB – Institute for Bioplastics and Biocomposites (University of Applied Sciences and Arts Hannover, Germany) and the nova-Institute (Hürth, Germany) – shows that bioplastics production capacity is set to increase from around 1.6 million tonnes in 2013 to approximately 6.7 million tonnes by 2018. Biobased, non-biodegradable plastics, such as biobased PE and biobased PET, are gaining the most. PLA is a major growth driver in the field of biobased and biodegradable plastics. Furthermore, renewable and compostable plastics produced locally are likely to benefit from the new EU directive on the reduction of shopping bags. Flexible and rigid packaging remains by far the leading application field for bioplastics. “Besides this, a decisive growth can be observed in textiles and automotive applications. From functional sports garments with enhanced breathability to fuel lines – bioplastics are constantly spreading into new markets,” explained de Bie. With a view to regional capacity development, Asia will expand its role as major production hub. Most of the currently planned projects are being implemented in Thailand, India and China. About 75 percent of bioplastics will be produced in Asia by 2018. In comparison: Europe at the forefront of research and development will be left with only roughly 8 percent of the production capacities. Additionally, other regions of the world, such as the USA and Asia, invest into measures ‘closer to market introduction’, which results in a faster market development than in Europe. “We urge the EU legislators to consider and make efficient use of the immense environmental, economic growth and job creation potential of our industry. In this context, the Circular Economy Package should remain in the Commission’s 2015 Work Programme and the Waste Target Review should proceed as planned,” concluded de Bie. Source: European Bioplastics

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  • Using waste to meet the demand for bioplastic

    Topic of the Month: December 2014 Biologically degradable plastic is being used to an increasing extent in the manufacturing of packaging and disposable products. Polylactic acid is a major component of this type of sustainable material. In order to meet the growing demand, scientists have developed a process with the aim of obtaining lactic acid from a waste/by-product of biodiesel manufacturing. Poly(lactic acid) or polylactide (PLA) is a biodegradable thermoplastic aliphatic polyester derived from renewable resources, such as corn starch (in the United States), tapioca roots, chips or starch (mostly in Asia), or sugarcane (in the rest of the world).[2] Strong demand for polylactic acid Plastic waste is one of the biggest environment problems of our age. A look at the environment reveals that most plastics are not degradable at all or only degrade to a limited extent. They merely disintegrate into smaller and smaller pieces, that not only pollute the environment but also have an impact on human beings. In addition to this, most plastics are made from oil, a raw material with reserves that are being depleted, even if the current slump in the oil price suggests otherwise. Alternatives, i.e. sustainable polymers and/or raw materials for biodegradable plastics, have already been introduced or are being discussed, however. They include such agricultural products as sunflower seeds, but also meadow grass or crab shells. Polylactic acid (PLA) is one of the materials that are currently being used to an increasing extent to manufacture bioplastics. This polymer, which is based on lactic acid, is biologically degradable and the raw material for it is renewable. Many disposable cups, plastic sacks and packaging materials are already being made from PLA nowadays. Strong demand for bioplastic Demand for bioplastic is rising steadily. Experts expect it to increase by one megatonne per year up to 2020. How and with the help of which sources the growing demand is to be covered has not evidently been settled adequately yet. Or perhaps it has. Scientists from the Institute for Chemical and Bioengineering Sciences at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) in Zurich recently presented a process for the production of lactic acid which is said to satisfy the exacting sustainability requirements that will be made in future [1]. The main features of their process: ETH reports that it is more productive, cost-efficient and climate-friendly than the fermentation process by which lactic acid is normally obtained. Another particularly interesting aspect is that the new process is based on what has classically been a waste product – glycerol – large quantities of which are obtained as a by-product of biodiesel manufacturing. Crude biodiesel contains substantial amounts of glycerol (dark phase). (Photo: Bo Cheng / ETH Zurich) Glycerol has potential It is estimated that the amount of glycerol produced in biofuel manufacturing will increase from three megatonnes at the present time to more than four megatonnes in 2020. The glycerol obtained in biodiesel production is not really clean, however; it contains traces of ash and methanol, which explains why it is not suitable for the production of food, cosmetics or pharmaceuticals. But what can the glycerol from biodiesel production be used for, if it is unsuitable for food or pharmaceutical applications and is not a viable alternative fuel in energy generation either due to its poor combustion properties? “Glycerol from biodiesel manufacturing should normally be treated and processed like (industrial) waste water. To save money and because it is not very toxic, some companies discharge it into rivers, however”, says Merten Morales, a doctoral student at the ETH and lead author of the study on which this article is based. A closer look at the issue shows, however, that simple disposal in the environment like this is a waste of a valuable resource. Focus on catalysis technology The fact that the method chosen by the ETH research scientists is based on what has up to now been a waste product is one of its outstanding advantages. Process engineering skill is, however, needed in the final analysis, in order to create a valuable material from it. Catalysis plays a central role in the transformation of glycerol into polylactic acid. Let us take a look at a few details: there are two basic stages in the process. First of all, enzymes, i.e. biocatalysts, turn glycerol into an intermediate product (dihydroxyacetone). After this, secondly, a heterogeneous catalyst drives the further reaction which leads to the production of lactic acid. Catalysis (from the Ancient Greek word κατάλυσις katálysis "dissolution") is the word used to describe the change in speed (kinetics) of a chemical reaction by means of a catalyst, generally with the aim of initiating it, accelerating it or directing selectivity in a desired direction. In a living cell, enzymes – which catalyse biochemical processes – play a fundamental role in metabolism, from digestion to reproduction and transcription of genetic information. Both natural catalytic processes like smog formation and the catalytic reduction of pollutants in automotive and power plant applications are of major importance in the environmental field. New systems for the generation and storage of energy, such as fuel cells, are based on catalytic processes. Substances that increase the speed of a chemical reaction by reducing activation energy without being consumed themselves in the process are known as catalysts. Catalysts accelerate the forward and backward reaction of a chemical process, i.e. the change in a substance, equally effectively. A catalyst participates in a chemical reaction by forming an intermediate stage with the reaction partners (reactants), with the catalyst remaining unchanged after the product has been created. A catalyst can complete this catalysis cycle repeatedly. Depending on which phases the catalysts and reactants are in, the catalysts are called homogeneous or heterogeneous. By way of explanation: in homogeneous catalysis, the catalyst is in a phase (solution or gas phase) with the reacting substances, while the catalyst is a phase of its own – generally solid – in heterogeneous catalysis. Incidentally : adding value via catalysis is of considerable economic significance in the chemical industry, because more than 80% of all chemical products are manufactured with the help of catalytic processes. The amount of energy and resources required can be reduced decisively by optimising these processes. Global catalyst sales amounted to about USD 16 billion in 2007, with more than 90% of this figure being generated with catalysts for heterogeneously catalysed processes. Catalysed polylactic acid production In the case of biopolymers based on PLA, the catalyst consists of a microporous mineral, a zeolite [8], the structure of which encourages chemical reactions in the microspaces of the pores. The catalysis operation, which represented a key element in successful implementation of the project, was optimised step by step in the course of the study. The research scientists were able to outperform the fermentation process at both the environmental and economic levels by improving various aspects of catalyst design. Cecilia Mondelli, a member of the scientific staff involved in the study, says that industrial processes were often made “sustainable” simply by switching to a renewable raw material. “However, if the entire process – from the source of the original material to the finished product, including waste disposal channels – is taken into consideration, what are allegedly sustainable processes are not necessarily more sustainable than the conventional ones.” The use of biodegradable plastic packaging made of polylactic acid (PLA) is spreading. Since this year, PLA cups are available also in the ETH canteens. (Photo: Bo Cheng / ETH Zurich) A reduction of one third in carbon dioxide emissions If the increase in productivity and the energy that the new process saves by providing a new recycling option for a waste material are taken into account as well, carbon dioxide emissions are said to be reduced by 30 per cent over the fermentation process. It is reported that the new process produces 6 kilograms of carbon dioxide per kilogram of lactic acid obtained compared with 7.5 kilograms in the conventional method. The research scientists have also calculated that profits seventeen times higher can be generated, because the overall costs of the process are lower. According to Morales, “the assumptions made in this context were on the conservative side and were based on a relatively high glycerol quality”. The process did, however, work with highly contaminated glycerol too, which would be even more cost-effective, even if this seems difficult to believe. The scientist is convinced that manufacturers could improve their profits even more. And not only major bioplastic manufacturers like those based primarily in the USA today would benefit from this. Because the research scientists are convinced: “The process is relatively simple and can be established everywhere where biodiesel and/or glycerol is made as a by-product”. Literature reference [1] Morales, M., Dapsens, P. Y., Giovinazzo, I., Witte, J., Mondelli, C., Papadokonstantakis, S., Hungerbühler, K., Pérez-Ramírez, J.: Environmental and economic assessment of lactic acid production from glycerol using cascade bio- and chemocatalysis. Energy Environ. Sci. 5 November 2014, doi: 10.1039/C4EE03352C Guido Deußing

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  • EU finally gets serious about slashing plastic bag use, balks at oxo-degradable ban

    Just last Friday, the governments of the EU member states unanimously approved measures that will require member states to take steps to dramatically reduce the proliferation of thin, single-use plastic bags, the lightweight, plastic shopping bags that are usually distributed to customers free of charge by stores when purchasing goods. "This is an historic moment for all of Europe. For the first time ever we have agreed on ambitious measures to reduce the amount of plastic bag waste in the environment. This is good news for the environment and all Europeans who expected the EU to take ambitious action on plastic bags," said Margrete Auken (Denmark), who is steering the legislation through Parliament. "As front-running countries have demonstrated, dramatically reducing the consumption of these disposable bags is easily achievable with a consistent policy. Swiftly phasing out these bags is a readily-implementable solution to the pervasive problem of plastic waste in the environment," she added. If the rules come into force, member states will be able to choose between two policy options: either to take measures to ensure that average yearly consumption of these bags does not exceed, on 90 lightweight bags per citizen by 2019 - representing a 50% reduction compared to current use - and 40 by 2025, a whopping 80% lower than what is used today. Alternatively, the member states may opt for measures prohibiting the distribution of these bags to shoppers free of charge altogether by 2018. Earlier, in April of this year, the European Parliament voted to reduce the consumption of lightweight plastic carrier bags by 50% in 2017 and 80% by 2019. The draft law thus gave some measure of legal status to bans implemented without the approval of the European Commission by member states such as Italy. At the same time, the EP also proposed to phase out bags designed to fragment, rather than biodegrade, and to ban harmful substances in plastic bags, which would also rule out the use of oxo-degradable plastics. The latter proposal, however, died at birth: the UK government opposed the ban, and was backed by several central and eastern European member states. As the entire agreement subsequently looked to be in danger of falling through, the ban on oxo-degradable plastics was dropped from the deal - much to the regret of the European Environmental Bureau, which believes the fragmentation of plastics further pollutes the environment, rather than fixing the problem. However, Symphony Environmental, a UK manufacturer of oxodegradable plastic and vociferous member of the Oxo-Biodegradable Plastics Association disagrees vehemently. The Association has released a statement saying: "We believe that the European Parliament's amendments against oxo-biodegradable plastic to the Packaging Waste Directive have been orchestrated by lobbyists for the vegetable-based plastics industry, and in particular a large Italian company with close links to the Italian Government. They see oxo-biodegradable plastic as a serious competitor for market-share. The OPA has therefore sought the support of other Member-states to oppose these amendments." It is no surprise that four of the six members of the EP delegation for the Trialogue are Italians. It is also no surprise that the Italian Presidency are going as far as they properly can as President of the Council, and possibly further, to promote these amendments in the commercial interests of that Italian company." Auken, together with various other member states and organizations disagrees: "These plastic bags worsen the litter problem by fragmenting into micro-plastics, polluting the environment and hindering composting and recycling," she said. "The only real beneficiary of this is one small company in the UK. Despite clear evidence on the problems of these bags, we will have to wait for further EU action on this problem." And the plastics industry? It took a bolder stance than expected when PlasticsEurope, the European trade association representing European plastics manufacturers, came out in favor of regulating oxo-degradable plastics. The association did express concern about the agreement, stating that it supported a mandatory charge on all bags regardless of which material they are made from, but feared that the possibility for member states to ban lightweight plastic bags sets a precedent which will lead to a patchwork of national regulations on other types of packaging as well, thereby creating trade barriers and hindering the EU internal market. But it also stated that it would "support a regulation on the use of so-called oxo-degradable plastics in Europe" since independent studies have shown that the fragmentation process is often inadequate and that the chemicals used are detrimental to the recycling process. The review of the Packaging and Packaging Waste Directive will offer the opportunity to regulate such product. Source: Plastics Today

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  • Clearing a path for electrons in polymers:

    A new class of low-cost polymer materials, which can carry electric charge with almost no losses despite their seemingly random structure, could lead to flexible electronics and displays which are faster and more efficient. Researchers from the University of Cambridge have identified a class of low-cost, easily-processed semiconducting polymers which, despite their seemingly disorganised internal structure, can transport electrons as efficiently as expensive crystalline inorganic semiconductors. In this new polymer, about 70% of the electrons are free to travel, whereas in conventional polymers that number can be less than 50%. The materials approach intrinsic disorder-free limits, which would enable faster, more efficient flexible electronics and displays. The results are published today (5 November) in the journal Nature. For years, researchers have been searching for semiconducting polymers that can be solution processed and printed – which makes them much cheaper – but also retain well-defined electronic properties. These materials are used in printed electronic circuits, large-area solar cells and flexible LED displays. However, a major problem with these materials – especially after they go through a messy wet coating, fast-drying printing process – is that they have an internal structure more like a bowl of spaghetti than the beautifully ordered crystal lattice found in most electronic or optoelectronic devices. These nooks and crannies normally lead to poorer performance, as they make ideal places for the electrons which carry charge throughout the structure to become trapped and slowed down. Polymer molecules consist of at least one long backbone chain, with shorter chains at the sides. It is these side chains which make conjugated polymers easy to process, but they also increase the amount of disorder, leading to more trapped electrons and poorer performance. Now, the Cambridge researchers have discovered a class of conjugated polymers that are extremely tolerant to any form of disorder that is introduced by the side chains. “What is most surprising about these materials is that they appear amorphous, that is very disordered, at the microstructural level, while at the electronic level they allow electrons to move nearly as freely as in crystalline inorganic semiconductors,” said Mark Nikolka, a PhD student at the University’s Cavendish Laboratory and one of the lead authors of the study. Using a combination of electrical and optical measurements combined with molecular simulations, the team of researchers led by Professor Henning Sirringhaus were able to measure that, electronically, the materials are approaching disorder-free limits and that every molecular unit along the polymer chain is able to participate in the transport of charges. “These materials resemble tiny ribbons of graphene in which the electrons can zoom fast along the length of the polymer chain, although not yet as fast as in graphene,” said Dr Deepak Venkateshvaran, the paper’s other lead author. “What makes them better than graphene, however, is they are much easier to process, and therefore much cheaper.” The researchers plan to use these results to provide molecular design guidelines for a wider class of disorder-free conjugated polymers, which could open up a new range of flexible electronic applications. For example, these materials might be suitable for the electronics that will be needed to make the colour and video displays that are used in smartphones and tablets more lightweight, flexible and robust. This research was funded by the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) and Innovate UK. Literature: Approaching disorder-free transport in high-mobility conjugated polymers. Nature (2014), doi:10.1038/nature13854 Source:

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  • Polymer makers batteries safer

    Every year, nearly 4,000 children go to emergency rooms after swallowing button batteries — the flat, round batteries that power toys, hearing aids, calculators, and many other devices. Ingesting these batteries has severe consequences, including burns that permanently damage the esophagus, tears in the digestive tract, and in some cases, even death. To help prevent such injuries, researchers at MIT, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, and Massachusetts General Hospital have devised a new way to coat batteries with a special material that prevents them from conducting electricity after being swallowed. In animal tests, they found that such batteries did not damage the gastrointestinal (GI) tract at all. “We are all very pleased that our studies have shown that these new batteries we created have the potential to greatly improve safety due to accidental ingestion for the thousands of patients every year who inadvertently swallow electric components in toys or other entities,” says Robert Langer, the David H. Koch Institute Professor at MIT and a member of MIT’s Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Institute for Medical Engineering and Science (IMES), and Department of Chemical Engineering. Langer and Jeffrey Karp, an associate professor of medicine at Harvard Medical School and Brigham and Women’s Hospital, are the senior authors of a paper describing the new battery coatings in this week’s edition of the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. The paper’s lead authors are Bryan Laulicht, a former IMES postdoc, and Giovanni Traverso, a research fellow at the Koch Institute and a gastroenterologist at MGH. Small batteries, big danger About 5 billion button batteries are produced every year, and these batteries have become more and more powerful, making them even more dangerous if swallowed. In the United States, recent legislation has mandated warning labels on packages, and some toys are required to have battery housings that can only be opened with a screwdriver. However, there have been no technological innovations to make the batteries themselves safer, Karp says. When batteries are swallowed, they start interacting with water or saliva, creating an electric current that produces hydroxide, a caustic ion that damages tissue. This can cause serious injury within just a couple of hours, especially if parents don’t realize right away that a child has swallowed a battery. “Disc batteries in the esophagus require [emergency] endoscopic removal,” Traverso says. “This represents a gastrointestinal emergency, given that tissue damage starts as soon as the battery is in contact with the tissue, generating an electric current [and] leading to a chemical burn.” The research team began thinking about ways to alter batteries so they would not generate a current inside the human body but would still be able to power a device. They knew that when batteries are inside their housing, they experience a gentle pressure. To take advantage of this, they decided to coat the batteries with a material that would allow them to conduct when under pressure, but would act as an insulator when the batteries are not being compressed. Quantum tunneling composite (QTC), an off-the-shelf material commonly used in computer keyboards and touch screens, fit the bill perfectly. QTC is a rubberlike material, usually made of silicone, embedded with metal particles. Under normal circumstances, these particles are too far apart to conduct an electric current. However, when squeezed, the particles come closer together and start conducting. This allows QTC to switch from an insulator to a conductor, depending on how much pressure it is under. To verify that this coating would protect against tissue damage, the researchers first calculated how much pressure the battery would experience inside the digestive tract, where movements of the tract, known as peristalsis, help move food along. They calculated that even under the highest possible forces, found in patients with a rare disorder called “nutcracker esophagus,” the QTC-coated batteries would not conduct. “You want to know what’s the maximum force that could possibly be applied, and you want to make sure the batteries will conduct only above that threshold,” Laulicht says. “We felt that once we were well above those levels, these coatings would pass through the GI tract unchanged.” After those calculations were done, the researchers monitored the coated batteries in the esophagus of a pig, and found no signs of damage. “A relatively simple solution” Because QTC is relatively inexpensive and already used in other consumer products, the researchers believe battery companies could implement this type of coating fairly easily. They are now working on developing a scalable method for manufacturing coated batteries and seeking companies that would be interesting in adopting them. “We were really interested in trying to impose design criteria that would allow us to have an accelerated path to get this out into society and reduce injuries,” Karp says. “We think this is a relatively simple solution that should be easy to scale, won’t add significant cost, and can address one of the biggest problems associated with ingestion of these batteries.” Also, because the coating is waterproof, the researchers believe it could be used to make batteries weather-resistant and more suitable for outdoor use. They also plan to test the coating on other types of batteries, including lithium batteries. Edith Mathiowitz, a professor of medical science at Brown University who was not involved in the research, says she believes this approach is a “brilliant idea” that offers an easy fix for the potential dangers of battery ingestion. “What I like about it is that it’s a simple idea you could implement very easily. It’s not something that requires a big new manufacturing facility,” she says. “And, it could be useful eventually in any type of size of battery.”

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  • New findings about microplastics in wastewater

    Treatment plants cannot completely keep microplastics out of wastewater by conventional means. This is one of the results of a pilot study commissioned by the regional water association of Oldenburg and Ostfriesland, Germany (OOWV – Oldenburg-Ostfriesischer Wasserverband) and the Lower Saxony Water Management, Coastal Defence and Nature Conservation Agency (NLWKN - Niedersächsischer Landesbetrieb für Wasserwirtschaft, Küsten- und Naturschutz). The findings will be used to better protect flora and fauna in rivers and seas. All plastic particles smaller than five millimetres are designated as microparticles. Microplastics have been included in the European Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD) as an indicator of the status of marine waters. Experts at the Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research (AWI) examined wastewater and sewage sludge from twelve treatment plants in the region covered by the OOWV water board. “The study provides valuable findings about plastic residues that no one has obtained thus far. By applying state-of-the-art methods, it is now possible to specifically classify plastics, such as those used in toothpaste, cosmetics, fleece jackets and packaging, even in wastewater. For this reason the study is also relevant for legislators, manufacturers and industry,” explains OOWV Managing Director Karsten Specht. To be able to detect and classify particles in wastewater as well as in sewage sludge, the researchers from the Alfred Wegener Institute employed micro-FTIR and ATR-FTIR spectroscopy. This involves using infrared radiation to set molecular bonds into oscillation. Depending on the method, the scientists press questionable particles onto a crystal for more detailed classification or place them on an aluminium oxide filter in order then to analyse them under a microscope. Through these methods it is possible to identify the plastics without a doubt and reliably differentiate them from natural materials. However, whether the majority of the microplastic particles found can actually be traced back to cosmetic products, for example, or whether they stem from abrasion of items of daily use, cannot be determined at the present time,” says microbiologist Dr. Gunnar Gerdts, who analysed the samples at the Alfred Wegener Institute on Helgoland. “The results are surprising for us. The occurrence of microplastic particles varies considerably. There is an urgent need for further studies to enable comparability. And this not only applies to the wastewater of treatment facilities, but also in rivers that receive the wastewater. Currently there are neither valid findings on the pollution of German rivers with microplastics nor data on whether diffuse or rather point sources like treatment plants contribute to such pollution,” states Gerdts. Almut Kottwitz, Permanent Secretary in the Lower Saxony Ministry of the Environment, Energy and Climate Protection, welcomes the pilot study: “Plastics have been in use in diverse form for over 60 years. However, no one has ever questioned what risks that entails. We now need a nationwide study on the input of microplastics into the food chain. The federal government has to provide the necessary research funds for that.” Ute Schlautmann, the responsible department head at NLWKN explains: “The project enables us to take a big step forward in an issue that is important for the marine environment. From the water investigations in recent years we know about the pollution of rivers and coastal waters with plastic particles. Through this project we obtain for the first time concrete data on treatment plants as a possible input pathway. The results show that microplastics can be retained in treatment plants, but evidently not completely.” More far-reaching measurements are necessary, she adds, to be able to make more precise statements than was previously the case and obtain more exact quantitative estimates. OOWV Department Manager Andreas Körner emphasises that additional studies are also necessary to determine further measures suitable for minimising the input of plastic particles into rivers and seas. “According to the study, we collect the majority of the microplastic particles by means of tertiary filtration, as we apply it in Oldenburg. Though this is a promising approach, the input of microparticles has to be avoided much earlier, i.e. during the production process,” explains Körner. The drinking water system of five water works belonging to OOWV was also subjected to special scrutiny. AWI examined water samples from the production wells, the drinking water at the water works outlet and the drinking water in the water main as well as at the end consumer. The result showed no microplastic particles in the groundwater. And the number of particles per cubic metre in the drinking water was extremely low, i.e. a maximum of seven. In all likelihood, according to the scientists, the microplastics stem from abrasion of a seal or pipe. “This is substantiated by the outstanding quality of our drinking water,” says Managing Director Karsten Specht. Source: Alfred-Wegener-Institut (AWI)

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